Course Note on Organizational Behaviour Essay Example for Free

Course Note on Organizational Behaviour Essay DEFINITION OF ORGANISATION According to Gary Johns, Organisations are social inventions for accomplishing goals through group efforts. This definition covers wide variety-of groups such as businesses, schools, hospitals, fraternal groups, religious bodies, government agencies and so on. There are three significant aspects in the above definition, which require further analysis. They are as follows: Social Inventions: The word social as a derivative of society basically means gathering of people. It is the people that primarily make up an organisation. Accomplishing Goals: All organisations have reasons for their existence. These reasons are the goals towards which all organisational efforts are directed. While the primary goal .of any commercial organisation is to make money for its owners, this goal is inter-related with many other goals. Accordingly, any organisational goal must integrate in itself the personal goals of all individuals associated with the organisation. Group Effort: People, both as members of the society at large and as a part of an organisation interact with each other and are inter-dependent. Individuals in themselves have physical and intellectual limitations and these limitations can only be overcome by group efforts. MEANING AND DEFINITION OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR Organisational behaviour is concerned with peoples thoughts, feelings, emotions and actions in setting up a work. Understanding an individual behaviour is in itself a challenge, but understanding group behaviour in an organisational environment is a monumental managerial task. As Nadler and Tushman put it, Understanding one individuals behaviour is challenging in and of itself; understanding a group that is made up of different individuals and comprehending the many relationships among those individuals is even more complex. Ultimately, the organisations work gets done through people, individually or collectively, on their, own or in collaboration with technology. Therefore, the management of organisational behaviour is central to the management task—a task that involves the capacity to understand the behaviour patterns of individuals, groups and organisations, to predict' what behavioural responses will be elicited by  various managerial actions and finally to use this understanding and these predictions to achieve control. Organisational behaviour can then be defined as: The study of human behaviour in organisational settings, the interface between human behaviour and the organisational context, and the organisation itself. The above definition has three parts—the individual behaviour, the organisation and the (interface between the two. Each individual brings to an organisation a unique set of beliefs, values, attitudes and other personal characteristics and these characteristics of all individuals must interact with each other in order to create organisational settings. The organisational behaviour is specifically concerned with work-related behaviour, which takes place in organisations. In addition to understanding; the on-going behavioural processes involved, in their own jobs, managers must understand the basic human element of their work. Organisational behaviour offers three major ways of understanding this context; people as organisations, people as resources and people as people. Above all, organisations are people; and without people there would be no organisations. Thus, if managers are to understand the organisations in which they work, they must first understand the people who make up the organisations. As resources, people are one of the organisations most valuable assets. People create the organisation, guide and direct its course, and vitalise and revitalise it. People make the decisions, solve the problems, and answer the questions. As managers increasingly recognise the value of potential contributions by their employees, it will become more and more important for managers and employees to grasp the complexities of organisational behaviour. Finally, there is people as people an argument derived from the simple notion of humanistic management. People spend a large part of their lives in; organisational settings, mostly as employees. They have a right to  expect something in return beyond wages and benefits. They have a right to expect satisfaction and to learn new skills. An understanding of organisational behaviour can help the manager better appreciate the variety of individual needs and expectations. Organisational behaviour is concerned with the characteristics and behaviours of employees in isolation; the characteristics and processes that are part of the organisation itself; and the characteristics and behaviours directly resulting from people with their individual needs and motivations working within the structure of the organisation. One cannot understand an individual’s behaviour completely without learning something about that individuals organisation. Similarly, he cannot understand how the organisation operates without; studying the people who-make it up. Thus, the organisation influences and is influenced by individuals. ELEMENTS OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR The key elements in the organisational behaviour are people,, structure, technology and the environment in which the organisation operates. People: People make up the internal and social system of the organisation. They consist of individuals and groups. The groups may be big or small; formal or informal; official or unofficial. Groups are dynamic and they work in the organisation to achieve their objectives. Structure: Structure defines the formal relationships of the people in organisations. Different people in the organisation are performing different type of jobs and they need to be (elated in some structural way so that their work can be effectively co-ordinated. Technology: Technology such as machines and work processes provide the resources with which people work and affects the tasks that they perform. The technology used has a significant influence on working relationships. It allows people to do more and work better but it also restricts people in various ways. Environment: All organisations operate within an external environment. It is the part of a larger system that contains many other elements such as government, family and other organisations. All of these mutually influence each other in a complex system that creates a context for a group of people. NATURE OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR Each individual brings to an organisation a unique set of personal characteristics, experiences from other organisation, the environment surrounding the organisation and1 they also possess a personal background. In considering the people working in an organisation, organisational behaviour must look at the unique perspective that each individual brings to the work setting. But individuals do not work in isolation. They come in contact with other individuals and the organisation in a variety of ways. Points of contact include managers, co-workers, formal policies and procedures of the organisation, and various changes implemented by the organisation. Over time, the individual, too, changes, as a function of both the personal experiences and the organisation. The organisation is also affected by the presence and eventual absence of the individual. Clearly, the study of organisational behaviour must consider the ways in which the individual and the organisation interact. An organisation, characteristically, exists before a particular person joins it and continues to exist after he leaves it. Thus, the organisation itself represents a crucial third perspective from which to view organisational behaviour. NEED FOR STUDYING ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR The rules of work are different from the rules of play. The uniqueness of rules and the environment of organisations forces managers to study organisational behaviour in order to learn about normal and abnormal ranges of behaviour. More specifically, organisational behaviour serves three purposes: What causes behaviour? Why particular antecedents cause behaviour? Which antecedents of behaviour can be controlled directly and which are beyond control? A more specific and formal course in organisational behaviour helps an individual to develop more refined and workable sets of assumption that is directly relevant to his work interactions. Organisational behaviour helps in predicting human behaviour in the organisational setting by drawing a clear distinction between individual behaviour and group behaviour. Organisational behaviour does not provide solutions to all complex and different behaviour puzzles of organisations. It is only the intelligent judgement of the manager in dealing with a specific issue that can try to solve the problem. Organisational behaviour only assists in making judgements that are derived from tenable assumptions; judgement that takes into account the important variables underlying the situation; judgement that are assigned due recognition to the complexity of individual or group behaviour; judgement that explicitly takes into account the managers own goals, motives, hang-ups, blind spots and weaknesses. IMPORTANCE OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR Organisational behaviour offers several ideas to management as to how human factor should be properly emphasised to achieve organisational objectives. Barnard has observed that an organisation is a conscious interaction of two or more people. This suggests that since an organisation is Ihe interaction of persons, they should be given adequate importance in managing the organisation. Organisational behaviour provides opportunity to management to analyse human behaviour and prescribe means for shaping it to a particular direction. Understanding Human Behaviour Organisational behaviour provides under ­standing the human behaviour in all directions in which the human beings interact. Thus, organisational behaviour can be understood at the individual level, interpersonal level, group level and inter-group level. Organisational behaviour helps to analyse why and how an individual behaves in a particular way. Human behaviour is a complex phenomenon and is affected by a large number of factors including the psychological, social and cultural implications. Organisational behaviour integrates these factors  to provide* simplicity in understanding the human behaviour. Interpersonal Level: Human behaviour can be understood at the level of interpersonal interaction. Organisational behaviour provides †¢ means for understanding the interpersonal relationships in an organisation. Analysis of reciprocal relationships, role analysis and transactional analysis are some of the common methods, which provide such understanding. Group Level: Though people interpret anything at their individual level, they are often modified by group pressures, which then become a force in shaping human behaviour, Thus, individuals should be studied in groups also.. Research in group dynamics has contributed vitally to organisational behaviour and shows how a group behaves in its norms, cohesion, goals, procedures, communication pattern and leadership. These research results are advancing managerial knowledge of understanding group behaviour, which is very important for organisational morale and productivity. Inter-group Level: The organisation is made up of many groups that develop complex relationships to build their process and substance. Understanding the effect of group relationships is important for managers in todays organisation. Inter-group relationship may be in the form of co-operation or competition.

To Explain Fire Setting Behaviour Psychology Essay

To Explain Fire Setting Behaviour Psychology Essay Intentional firesetting is a costly and serious form of anti social behaviour that can have devastating consequences, both personally and financially. Encapsulating this notion, fire departments in the United States confirmed that in 2007, there were over 300,000 intentionally set fires recorded, causing hundreds of fatalities, thousands of injuries and generated over a billion dollars of financial costs (Hall, 2010). The term firesetting is often used interchangeably with the legal term arson, defining the specific criminal act of intentionally or recklessly setting fire to damage or defraud (Vaughn et al, 2010). Conversely, firesetting is the term used to describe to incidences whereby the deliberate setting of fires may not have been prosecuted for a variety of reasons (e.g. insufficient severity to cause damage or has not been detected as a deliberate fire; identity of the firesetter is unknown; insufficient evidence to gain a conviction; or the young age of the setter; Dickens Sugarman, 2012). Firesetting is therefore applicable to a wider scale of people who deliberately engage in setting fires, than the narrow definition of arson. Existing research suggests that such behaviour is more frequently perpetrated by child and juveniles than adults (Kolko, 1985). However recent findings show that approximately one million people in the United States, and 200,000 in UK have set a fire since the age of 15 (Dickens Sugarman, 2012), thereby suggesting firesetting often continues into adulthood (Blanco et al, 2010; Vaughn et al, 2010). Research into the potential origins of the behaviour indicates that such actions are strongly correlated with a range of individual characteristics and antecedents (Vaughn et al, 2010). What is more, firesetting is a symptom of pyromania, however as the community prevalence of this is apparently rare (Grant, Levine, Kim Potenza, 2005; Lejoyeux, Arbarateaz, McLoughlin Adà ©s, 2002), the suggestion of co-morbidity between firesetti ng and more common types of mental disorder, as found by a range of scholars (Anwar, Là ¥ngstrom, Grann Fazel 2011; Blanco et al, 2010; Bradford Dimock, 1986; Richie Huff, 1999; Vaughn et al, 2010) has been preferred. As a result, these associations have largely featured in the construction of typologies, single factor and multifactor theories that attempt to explain firesetting behaviour. This essay aims to critically assess such theories. A fundamental basis for effective assessment and treatment of criminal behaviour is awareness of, and comprehensive understanding of etiological theory. This provides a core framework from which to plot the interrelationships between an offenders presented clinical phenomena and central psychological variables. Within literature relating to sexual offending, Ward and Hudson (1998) eluded to a meaningful method of conceptualising etiological theory into two types; single factor and multi factor theories (Ward Hudson, 1998). As these figure throughout the essay, it is favourable to address each style. Single factor theories are those which focus on explaining a lone factor and its causal relationship with offending. Conversely, multifactor theories unite various single factor theories into a thorough outline of offending, providing an account of how the factors are merged to facilitate offending behaviour (Gannon, Ó Ciardha, Doley Alleyne, 2012). A further, and relatively underdeveloped form of theory absent from those detailed by Ward and Hudson (1998) is taxonomic classification, or typologies. Here, various offenders are subtyped into groups, based on shared motivational factors, personality characteristics, demographic aspects or a combination of each (Gannon Pina, 2010). These classifications represent unilateral assemblage that when deemed sufficient and reliable, play an effective role in assessment and treatment, as well as feeding into more comprehensive theories of offence behaviour (Gannon et al, 2012). Because of this reason, typologies will feature at the beginning of this evaluation. Before commencing however, it is beneficial to portray what constitutes the typical firesetter. Firstly, reports from several scholars have suggested that the majority of apprehended firesetters are white (Bennett Hess, 1984; Ritchie Huff, 1999; Rix, 1994). Concerning gender, figures confirm that male firesetters are more frequent than female firesetters, for example one study highlighted that in excess of 80% of self reported firesetters were male, equal to a male:female gender ratio approximating 5:1 (Blanco et al, 2010; Vaughn et al, 2010). In support, similar gender ratios that approach or exceeding this are common in various selected samples (Bourget Bradford, 1989; Lewis Yarnell, 1951; Stewart, 1993). Firesetting therefore, appears largely to be a male activity. In relation to age, studies have found that more than half of firesetters were aged 18-35 years, compared to 31% of the non-firesetter control population. In addition, older firesetters were found to be rare, with 4% aged 65 years and over, compared with 16% of population controls (Blanco et al; Vaughn et al, 2010). Other scholars have also reported a tendency towards youth as a risk factor (Bourget Bradford, 1989; Puri, Baxter Cordess, 1995). Therefore, firesetters appear to be generally young and moreover, a large number of studies further show that the majority of which are typically younger than non-firesetting criminals (Hurley Monahan, 1969; Rice Harris, 1991). Lastly, firesetters tend to be low achievers in education and more likely to be unemployed or unskilled than other non-firesetting offenders (Bradford,1982; Harris Rice, 1991), disadvantaged in terms of social class (Hurley Monahan, 1969) and also possess difficulties in forming long lasting relationships, as many are typically reported to be living alone and never to have married (Bourget Bradford,1989; Puri et al, 1995; Ritchie Huff, 1999; Dickens, Sugarman, Edgar, Hofberg, Tewari Ahmad, 2009). Representing the very earliest stages of theory development are typologies, of which there have been many (e.g. Icove Estepp, 1987; Inciardi, 1970; Lewis Yarnell, 1951; Rix, 1994). Perhaps the first researchers to provide a classificatory system for firesetters were Lewis and Yarnell (1951) who, using 2000 reports of firesetting identified four reasons as to why fires were set, these included: unintentionally, through delusions, through erotic pleasure and to acquire revenge (Lewis Yarnell, 1951). This early typology was pioneering since it laid the foundations for other researchers to add to (Bradford, 1982). One scholar who obliged several years later was Inciardi (1970) who examined records of paroled firesetters released from state prisons over a six year period and observed six categories of firesetter: institutionalised, insurance claim, vandalism, crime concealment, excitement and revenge (Inciardi, 1970). A key strength of Inciardis (1970) work was the amount of participants studied, but another was that there were similarities between two of the categorisations proposed by himself, and Lewis and Yarnell (1951). This is significant as the presence of these categories within firesetting can be linked to and supported by other empirical findings. For example, in reference to their erotic pleasure (Lewis Yarnell, 1951) and excitement (Inciardi, 1970) categories, these hold particular relevance to symptoms of pyromania (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), an impulsive disorder characterised by intense fascination with and a desire to associate oneself with fire and fire paraphernalia, though as there are many diagnostic restrictions, the prevalence of pyromania is rare (Doley, 2003). An additional similarity seen between the two typologies (Lewis Yarnell, 1951; Incairdi, 1970) is the inclusion of revenge as a category, which is supported as a motive for firesetting by many scholars (e.g. Koson Dvoskin, 1982; Pettiway, 1987; Rix, 1994). A key criticism of the typologies proposed by Inciardi (1970) and similar ones that followed (e.g, Dennet, 1980; Icove Estepp, 1987; Rautaheimo, 1989) was that their categories were generally too broad (Gannon et al, 2012). Therefore, later typologies used a smaller number of categories using data driven strategies (e.g. Almond, Duggan, Shine Canter, 2005; Canter Fritzon, 1998; Harris Rice, 1996; Rice Harris, 1991), providing an empirically stronger classification of firesetters (Gannon et al, 2012). One such example by Rice and Harris (1996) investigated 11 variables thought to be closely associated with firesetting, in a sample of 243 mentally disordered firesetters. They discovered four categories labelled as: psychotics (motivated by delusions and characterised by few incidents), unassertives (motivated mainly by anger or vengeance and characterised by low assertiveness), multifiresetters (primarily set fires in institutions and characterised by poor developmental experience s), and criminals (likely to operate at night, characterised by poor developmental experiences and, personality disorder) (Rice Harris, 1996). Rice and Harriss (1996) typology is possibly one of the strongest available as not only does it state the criteria required for group membership, but many of their aspects above are supported by empirical research (Gannon et al, 2012). For instance, the presence of personality disorder in Rice and Harriss (1996) criminal category is supported by findings that show antisocial personality disorder is particularly common in firesetters (APA, 2000; Bradford, 1982; Kolko, 1985; Kolko Kazdin, 1991). This is in addition to support for the presence of delusions as a motivation for firesetting, since a link between firesetting and schizophrenia has also been demonstrated (Geller, 1987; McKerracher Dacre, 1966; Richie Huff, 1999). One could argue however, that the presence of psychopathology within Rice Harriss (1996) sample was expected, as it was limited to those who were mentally disordered (Gannon et al, 2012). Although one of the adjudged reasons identified by Lewis and Yarnell (1951) as to why a fire may be set was through delusions (Lewis Yarnell, 1951), and this research was based on a sample free from mental disorder. Shared characteristics of firesetters identified in typologies often help to initiate scholars to explain these through psychological theory, thus our attention is now shifted towards single factor theories of firesetting. Possibly the earliest single factor theory was proposed by Freud (1932), later elaborated upon by other authors (Gold, 1932; Macht Mack, 1968). Here it was hypothesised that firesetting originates from either a urethral or oral fixated sexual drive. Firstly, youngsters are believed to experience enuresis as a means of attempting to extinguish firesetting occurring in dreams and secondly, firesetting is seen to symbolise repressed sexual urges (Gannon Pina, 2010). Other psychodynamic accounts made use of instinctual drives, such as aggression and anxiety to explain firesetting (e.g. Kaufman, Heims Reiser, 1961). However as there is a notorious lack of empirical evidence to offer support to psychodynamic theory (Hollin, 2013), it is unsurprising that there is litt le support this, or the suggestion that that those who set fires find the act sexually arousing (Rice Harris, 1991; Quinsey, Chaplin Upfold, 1989), or that there is a high rate of enuresis amongst firesetters. In contrast, considerably more praise has been gathered by researchers focusing on the role of biology and neurological impairment in order to explain firesetting behaviour (Gannon Pina, 2010). For example, evidence suggests that firesetters have decreased concentrations of cerebrospinal fluid monomaine metabolites (Roy, Virkkunen, Guthrie Linnoila, 1986; Virkkunen, Nuutila, Goodwin Linnoila, 1987; Virkkunen, Dejongm Bartko Linnoila, 1989). Furthermore, Virkkunen et al (1989) found that recidivist firesetters were those most likely to have such abnormalities relative to non-recidivist firesetting, therefore suggesting that such abnormal neurotransmitter defects could account for prolonged and impulsive cases of firesetting. However as firesetting is often co-morbid with impulse disorder (Lidberg, Belfrage, Bertilsson, Evenden Ã…sberg, 2000), such abnormalities are unlikely to be specific to the act of firesetting itself. Perhaps the most supported concept relating to neuropsychological and biological theories of firesetting, is through brain injury. Evidence has found 28% of arsonists referred to forensic psychiatry services had a history of brain injury (Puri et al, 1995) and furthermore, abnormal electroencephalography readings were found amongst arsonists also when compared to non-offending and other offending controls (Bradford, 1982; Hill et al, 1982). Here it is believed that such trauma may exert an exaggerating force that leads one to engage in firesetting behaviour (Kolko, 2002). One main area of praise for biological perspectives of firesetting is that they offer promise for rehabilitation, depending on the nature of the abnormality (e.g. provision of serotoninergic drugs for offenders with low levels of cerebrospinal fluid monomaine metabolites; JoviĆ¡, MirkovĆ¡, MajiĆ¡-Singh MilovanoviĆ¡, 1999). However, cases of firesetting associated solely on biological causes are rare, meaning this may limit professional examination of psychological and sociological factors that are also likely to be associated with firesetting (Gannon Pina, 2010). The final and most contemporary single factor theory of firesetting left to address is Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1976). The main assertion here is that firesetting is the product of reinforcement contingencies and learning through modelling or imitation (Bandura, 1976; Kolko Kazdin, 1986; Macht Mack, 1968; Singer Hensley, 2004). For example, Vreeland and Levin (1980) propose that firesetting can be instantly reinforcing via sensory excitement connected to fire, in addition to the sirens, noise and crowds elicited by fire (Vreelin Levin, 1980). Furthermore, as positive reinforcement does not necessarily need to be directly experienced for social learning to transpire, learning associated with fire may occur vicariously through mere exposure to fires (legitimate or illegitimate), or key models of firesetting behaviour (e.g. parents and caregivers; Gannon et al, 2012). In support, there is key evidence showing firstly, that firesetters fathers occupations often involve consid erable exposure to fire (e.g. firemen; Stewart, 1993). Secondly, firesetters tend to be raised in environments where fire is more pervasive (e.g. countryside locations; Wolford, 1972), or used as punishment (Ritvo, Shanok Lewis, 1983). And finally, firesetters often orginate from families with a history of firesetting (Rice Harris, 1991). Social Learning Theory can also be applied in conjunction with earlier discussion of firesetting typologies, of which a common category proposed was firesetting that related to revenge or was anger induced (Lewis Yarnell, 1951; Inciardi, 1970; Rice Harris, 1996). For example, Social Learning Theory forecasts that self-regulatory responses are created as a product of reinforcement contingencies. Consequently, poor childhood socialisation personified through exposure to negative developmental experiences and role models are likely to result in aggression, poor coping skills and a lack of assertiveness (Gannon Pina, 2010). As there is a wealth of evidence to support the presence of such traits amongst firesetters (e.g. Ainsworth, 1989; Bowlby, 1969; Jackson et al, 1987; Rice Chaplin, 1979; Rice Harris, 2008; Root, Mackay, Henderson, Del Bove Warling, 2008; Showers Pickrell, 1987; Smith Short, 1995), these are likely to incline individuals towards reckless behaviours (Nagin Pate rnoster, 1993) and launch a propensity to light fires to gain positive environmental control (Vreeland Levin, 1980). Thus Social Learning Theory foretells that various developmental experiences, cues, cognitive perceptions and expectations shape a persons proclivity for firesetting, notably as a form of learnt aggression (Gannon Pina, 2010). However one key limitation is that it is unclear which combination of factors culminates in facilitating other forms of firesetting (Gannon Pina, 2010). The final type of theory to consider addresses key features of previous theories to present a more holistic view to the path of firesetting, known as multifactor theories. Here, interactions are explicitly defined between individual characteristics and features of the social environmental that are integral to the decision to offend. Within this perspective there are two main approaches to consider. The first of which used Functional Analysis Theory principles (Sturmey, 2008), to explain firesetting as an interaction of antecedents and behavioural consequences (Jackson et al, 1987). Referring to their clinical experience of firesetters, research literature and tenets of Social Learning Theory, Jackson et al (1987) formulated the core associative links hypothesised to produce and reinforce firesetting. Regarding antecedents, five factors were assumed: psychosocial disadvantage, life dissatisfaction and self loathing, social ineffectiveness, factors determining the individuals experienc es of fire and internal or external firesetting triggers (Jackson et al, 1987). Within this paradigm, firesetters are viewed as individuals who, throughout their early years experience significant social difficulties and are unable to satisfy their emotional and social needs through appropriate means (Jackson et al, 1987). However, involvement in fire and fire paraphernalia allows for some control to be exerted over their environment, which is ordinarily unobtainable to them. This is in addition to increased attention from distracted or distanced caregivers such that fire interest is positively reinforced. Such increases in personal effectiveness and self esteem, alongside sensory stimulation of the fire therefore increases interest in fire, thereby mounting the likelihood of firesetting in the future (Gannon et al, 2012). Jackson et al further add that negative reinforcement priniciples may play an equally important role in developing and maintaining firesetting. Here they suggest punitive consequences of firesetting (e.g. rejection, punishment, intense and increased supervision) may strengthen the offenders personal inadequacies already experienced, such that firesetting behaviours are continued (Jackson et al, 1987). A main strength of the Functional Analysis Theory (Jackson et al, 1987) is that there is a wealth of evidence available that favours the hypothesised association between firesetting and psychosocial disadvantage (e.g. Blackburn, 1993; Geller, 1987, Hollin, 1989; Inciardi, 1970). For example, as well as being generally psychiatrically disturbed (Barnett Spitzer, 1994), many firesetters suffer specifically from depression, low self esteem and substance abuse (Coid, Wilkins Coid, 1999; Puri et al, 1995; Repo, 1998). Whats more, researchers also note specifically that firesetters are frequently socially inept and experience maladjustment across several life domains, such as education and employment and peer personal relations (Bradford, 1982; Harris Rice, 1984; OSullivan Kelleher, 1982; Vreeland Levin, 1980). Although, many of these psychosocial variables are found to be common among other types of offender (Hurley Monahan, 1969), therefore it may not be wise to generalise such fin dings wholly to firesetters. Nevertheless, Jackson et als work is deserving of praise in its unification of isolated findings and hypotheses together into one whole (Gannon Pina, 2010), coupled with its relevance for clinicians, helping to underpin and guide contemporary treatment for firesetting (Swaffer, Haggert Oxley, 2001; Taylor, Thorne Slavin, 2004). As in Functional Analysis Theory (Jackson et al, 1987), the other multifactor theory of firesetting known as the Dynamic Behaviour Theory (Fineman, 1980; 1995), followed the view that such behaviour is a product of historical psychosocial influences that shape a persons tendency to set fires through social learning experiences. The theory stipulates that firesetting is the result of an interaction between historical factors predisposing antisocial actions (e.g. social disadvantage), previous and existing environmental reinforcers (e.g. childhood experiences) and instant environmental reinforcers (e.g. external, internal sensory reinforcement) (Fineman, 1995). The latter is further split into numerous variables that Fineman (1995) argues should be explored by clinicians. These include, impulsivity triggers (e.g. rejection or trauma), crime scene features that may provide reasoning behind such behaviour (e.g. target of a specific individual), cognitions and affects prior to, during an d post firesetting, and lastly any external (e.g. financial reward) or internal reinforcers (e.g. satisfaction or sensory satisfaction). Fineman (1995) ultimately hypothesises that firesetting stems from the culmination of interactions between these aforementioned factors, proceeding to recommend careful investigation of each when assessing and treating firesetters (Fineman, 1995). Akin to Functional Analysis Theory (Jackson et al, 1987), Dynamic Behaviour Theory (Fineman, 1995) plays a key role in developing professional understanding of firesetting. A specific strength of this theory was that the attention paid to the more proximal variables related to firesetting, as this expresses how crucial psychological factors contribute to the development and maintenance of firesetting behaviour (Gannon Pina, 2010). Away from these strengths however, is the problem that empirical support for this theory has largely been limited to findings from juvenile firesetters, meaning many mechanisms associated with adult firesetting are left unexplained by this theory (Gannon et al, 2012). This evaluation has shown that the majority of empirical work undertaken with firesetters has focused on the production of typological classificatory systems and the examination of firesetters psychopathological and sociodemographical features. This information is useful in gaining an essential understanding of a variety of motives behind firesetting behaviour and has paved the way for scholars to address the underlying meaning of such motives through etiological theory. This in turn aims to help deliver effective treatments to firesetters. In response, several single factor theories have been applied to explain firesetting, however these are unable to explain the myriad of features that typically interact to facilitate and maintain firesetting (Gannon Pina, 2010). Though, one key addition to single factor theories is Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1976; Vreeland Levin, 1980), of which key aspects featured throughout both available multifactor theories of firesetting, Functional Analysis Theory (Jackson et al, 1987) and Dynamic Behaviour Theory (Fineman, 1980; 1995). Both multifactor theories hold several strengths, particularly their focus on developmental experiences as a factor explaining interest in, and reinforcement of firesetting (Gannon Pina, 2010). However, despite being the most appropriate method of explaining firesetting, absent from their accounts is any reference to the full range of risk factors or criminogenic needs associated with the broad range of firesetting behaviours, nor is there acknowledgement of the potential factors linked with a desistence from firesetting (Gannon et al, 2012). This inevitably led to the recent development of the Multi-Trajectory Theory of Adult Firesetting (Gannon et al, 2012) not discussed in specific detail here, but which integrated the current theory, typological, and research findings considered throughout this essay into one sizeable etiological theory of firesetting and its maintenance and desistence.

The Artistic Aspect of Architecture Essay -- Architectural Building Ar

The Artistic Aspect of Architecture Architecture is undeniably one of the most powerful forms of art. Buildings have the ability to loom in the distance when seen from afar. As you approach it more and more details can be seen. Minute intricacies such as stone quality, texture, and perhaps some ornate detailing become apparent. Even standing at a doorway can provide some involved feelings. Does the building seem to invite the viewer inside with elaborate carvings and an open view to the interior? Or does it intimidate the viewer with its massive proportions making them feel insignificant and trivial? When inside the architecture as a medium the viewer is surrounded by and grasped within its walls and ceiling. This quality is one unique to architecture because it is the only form of art to totally surround its viewer with such magnitude. Whether one turns to the left or right, looks up or down, ceilings or walls are constantly presented to the viewer who stands amidst the intended space and substance. A line is drawn between buildings erected to serve a mere function and those which are made to integrate an influential quality into all who happen to see them often through use of extravagance. The latter can be propelled into greatness based on whether or not they are successful in carrying out with this vision set forth by their creators. This is what sets apart an ordinary building from an impressive and monumental wonder. It is interesting to note how a building is set apart from others of its time when this building is made to represent the people as a whole. Of course this building will surpass the more ordinary ones juxtaposed within the city. Of course the society or ruler would like to put their â€Å"best ... ...d and venerated being. On the other hand, Judas’ fate of damnation is shown by his contact with the devil clutching him. A final statement is made in the Scrovegni Chapel on behalf of all the buildings discussed here. God is depicted at the top of the altar dispatching Gabriel. God is placed at the top to honor Him and show His superiority to all that enter the chapel. Man’s yearning to glorify God (or gods in the case of the Pantheon) has been the key driving force in the construction of many fabulous buildings. Granted there are those that deviate from this pure motive in order to satisfy self-glorification through the artwork, but basically the root of all these wonders is the chance to glorify the Supreme Being. It is wonderful to see the end results now and witness how art is so much a part of worship and of the success of architectural organization.

Essay --

About 13 years ago , America wasn't involved in any wars with any nation. Our nation deported not as many immigrants as we do today, and citizens used to get through airport security in five minutes. As we can see a lot can change in little over a decade. Many dramatic changes needed to be changed after September 11th. The 9/11 attack stands alone as a unforgettable moment in United States history, that showed the most influential effects on the America and its citizens. 19 groups of combat that were known to be associated with the Islamic extremist group al-Qaeda hijacked four airliners and carried out suicide attacks against targets in the United States on September 11, 2001 ( "9/11 Attacks."). Two different planes flew into the towers of the New York City, World Trade Center. Meanwhile there was a third plane third plane hit the Pentagon that was outside Washington, D.C. The fourth plane took a wrong turn and crashed into a field in Pennsylvania. Death and destruction came out of the 9/11 attacks. More than 3,000 people were killed during and afterward the attacks in not only New York City but also Washington, D.C., this count did not include the 400 police officers and firefighters who also died.( "9/11 Attacks."). The human tragedy of 9/11 is unbearable and immeasurable. Yet there is another cost, the kind we are known to measuring, which is the economic cost. 9/11 Affected the United states economically. First it started off with the 2001 recession. In 2001, four days after the attack the economy started to drop for the first time since the Great Depression. Between the insurance cost, cost of rebuilding the World Trade Center into a Memorial and Museum, the United States spent a lot of money. New York City, had 430,00... ... higher chance of developing cancer compared to those in the group that was not exposed to the dust. 135 people had cancer in a non-exposed group. This was being compared to 161 smaller sized group (9 /11 Ten Years On - The Health Effects On Rescue Worker). Not all effects of 9/11 were good, but some of them changes the United states for the better. 9/11 was one of the worse days in american history that affected americans economic, security, health, and physiologically. Fortunately, the person who planned this horrible attack was found in 2011 and killed. This was a sense of relief for american people. Yes, people are still scared about future attacks but know that this time the united states know what to do. The 9/11 attack stands alone as a unforgettable moment in United States history, that showed the most influential effects on the America and its citizens.

Ethics in Business Decision Making Essay -- Business Ethics, Normative

The field of ethics (or moral philosophy) involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior (Fieser, 2009). Many of the decisions one faces in a typical day could result in a multitude of outcomes. At times it can be hard to determine whether or not the decision you are making is an ethical one. Many philosophies have been devised to illustrate the different ways of evaluating moral decisions. Normative ethics focuses on assessing right and wrong behavior. This may involve reinforcing positive habits, duties we should follow, or the consequences of our behavior (Fieser, 2009). Of the many normative philosophies two stand out to be most accepted; teleology and deontology. Although they oppose each other in how actions are evaluated, they uphold many similar characteristics under the surface. Normative ethics involves either a single rule or a set of principles to evaluate moral conduct. Teleology stipulates that acts are morally acceptable if they produce some desired result. Deontology on the other hand, focuses on the preservation of individual rights and on the intentions associated with a particular behavior. In summation, teleological philosophies consider the ends, or consequences, associated with an action whereas deontological philosophies consider the means (Ferrell, Fraedrich, & Ferrell, 2011). This is why teleology is commonly referred to as Consequentialism. In addition to the rule, deontology also cites individual absolute rights: freedom of conscience, freedom of consent, freedom of privacy, freedom of speech, and due process. Deontologist employ this set of freedoms because they believe certain rights should never be violated even if it is to produce a greater good (Ferre... ...ord.edu/entries/utilitarianism-history/ Encyclopedia Britannica. (2011). Retrieved 24 2011, 3, from Utilitarianism: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/620682/utilitarianism Ferrell, O. C., Fraedrich, J., & Ferrell, L. (2011). Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and Cases. Mason, Ohio: South-Western Cengage Learning. Fieser, J. (2009, 5 10). Ethics. Retrieved 3 26, 2011, from Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: http://www.iep.utm.edu/ethics/ Frankena, W. K. (1963). Ethics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Sinnott-Armstrong, W. (2003, 5 20). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 3 15, 2011, from Consequentialism : http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/ Taliaferro, C. (2010, 4 27). stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 3 11, 2011, from Philosophy of Religion: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philosophy-religion/ Ethics in Business Decision Making Essay -- Business Ethics, Normative The field of ethics (or moral philosophy) involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior (Fieser, 2009). Many of the decisions one faces in a typical day could result in a multitude of outcomes. At times it can be hard to determine whether or not the decision you are making is an ethical one. Many philosophies have been devised to illustrate the different ways of evaluating moral decisions. Normative ethics focuses on assessing right and wrong behavior. This may involve reinforcing positive habits, duties we should follow, or the consequences of our behavior (Fieser, 2009). Of the many normative philosophies two stand out to be most accepted; teleology and deontology. Although they oppose each other in how actions are evaluated, they uphold many similar characteristics under the surface. Normative ethics involves either a single rule or a set of principles to evaluate moral conduct. Teleology stipulates that acts are morally acceptable if they produce some desired result. Deontology on the other hand, focuses on the preservation of individual rights and on the intentions associated with a particular behavior. In summation, teleological philosophies consider the ends, or consequences, associated with an action whereas deontological philosophies consider the means (Ferrell, Fraedrich, & Ferrell, 2011). This is why teleology is commonly referred to as Consequentialism. In addition to the rule, deontology also cites individual absolute rights: freedom of conscience, freedom of consent, freedom of privacy, freedom of speech, and due process. Deontologist employ this set of freedoms because they believe certain rights should never be violated even if it is to produce a greater good (Ferre... ...ord.edu/entries/utilitarianism-history/ Encyclopedia Britannica. (2011). Retrieved 24 2011, 3, from Utilitarianism: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/620682/utilitarianism Ferrell, O. C., Fraedrich, J., & Ferrell, L. (2011). Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and Cases. Mason, Ohio: South-Western Cengage Learning. Fieser, J. (2009, 5 10). Ethics. Retrieved 3 26, 2011, from Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: http://www.iep.utm.edu/ethics/ Frankena, W. K. (1963). Ethics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Sinnott-Armstrong, W. (2003, 5 20). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 3 15, 2011, from Consequentialism : http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/ Taliaferro, C. (2010, 4 27). stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 3 11, 2011, from Philosophy of Religion: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philosophy-religion/

Feminism and Language Essay

Among different disciplines of the society, feminist geography, feminist history and feminist literary criticism, collectively becomes the Feminist Theory. This theory had a long walk of time, starting from this movement till 90s; at its third extent of its evolution. The time of post war and the baby boomers, the 60s and 70s were in the extent of the second wave. From this stage it reaches the first wave of 19th and early 20th century from the very point of time, when this became collectively the movements of this evolution that includes women’s rights, gender difference and theories and philosophies, which were the three social factors; of politics, society and economic equality of men and women in return gave birth to a concept called Feminism (Maggie 278). One of the factors, society has a concern with feminism amongst many, about the Language. This movement has influenced the usage of language at large. Linguistics brunt their midnight oil, to work on the description of the language usage that reduces the assumption of the biological sex of human connection. The thrush for the neutral gender was clearly manifested on its agendas of gender-inclusive language, which involve both the sexes or the genders and of gender-neutral language that proposes, gender hardly have any role in the language, for which it becomes neutral regarding in language usage. It is further argued to be non sexist language or politically correct language. Through these analyses the paper is shaping its findings of the relation between Feminism and Language. The philosophy of language have had its hurdle to establish the point of existence, but the criticism that displayed the male bias in the language like English, another criticisms is that the philosophy is ill equipped for the use of the feminists paved a way to a wider arena where its been suggested not to lay off the philosophy from the language. A cognitive feminist concept stretches the idea to limits where the traditional philosophy can help understanding the issues important to feminists. In Feminism, there have been numerous reasons to prove it ill suited for meeting the feminist needs, but the only factor that remained the lowest common denominator is the presence of maximum Individual in the philosophy. Criticism regarding polarity of individualism has been done in length and breadth, but interestingly, detection of those criticisms are always variable for different areas of philosophy being under the spot light and the different concerns of the particular critic, and the due to lack of single judgement the issue remains pseudo (Hintikka & Hintikka 139; Hornsby 87 and Nye 323). It has long been for the philosophy, since the beginning to be tagged with the usage of men bias of English language. Thinking can be free flowing when the language muses with mother tongue. Because, apart from English, there are different families of languages, which have much complex linguistics and can be used more flexibly in the context of both men centric and feminist uses. Such is the status of mother tongue, which frees itself from the men bias of English language. Needless to say, this can include many more languages in the common criticisms of the point of existence of philosophy of language. This also frees the critics from the psychological debate of the women and men. Moreover, individualism dose not have any scope to appreciate the concept of Social, where the central issue; feminism itself is the brainchild of social or society. Thus, the approach empowers the presence of language in feminism to the social causes of politics and power relation. Feminism is concern with the study of people and the domination function on others. Here the feelings and ideas are conveyed through a media. In this act of communicating language plays the most important role of media. Thus, it communicates, manipulates and controls to make it vital to understand the work of power. It is still a longing desire for many feminists to have a philosophy of language that will comprehend the social communication, but as a matter of fact, as of now; the presence of Individualism has it to be employed (Hornsby 97). In a Feminist mind set, the interchagability of the sexes are more important concept than decent English. As per the dogma of the convention, it has been engraved on the generations of student to think ‘he’ in connection of male only. Precisely, this is wrong. But the same had been practiced as the concept at its maximum limit. In the same school of thought a feminist would never go for ‘he’ if it can be presented as he or she, and would never chooses the author, where the author or the authoress can be put on use. And here the turning-point of the matter, which establishes the other side of the feminists on language, where they hate such kinds of vocabularies like, actress and waitress. Rather insist here for the masculine use for women and men. Of course it appears to be exclusively masculine in cases like these for those who are just learning the language (Gelernter 2008). Unlike the second wave, where the gender usage had been in use as person specific, the third wave is moving the approach in a more social level. Previously it was about the usage of the gender to address the person, but here it is about the perception of the language usage and that influences a larger group or category of the mass. It deals with the different way that men and women speak. Like, men being direct and forceful, women being hesitant, polite and apologetic. It analyses the complex negotiation among the genders regarding gender specific context like public speaking or intimate conversation and by routine, what women and men should do that is the co-operativeness and competitiveness. This makes the language of the two genders clear leaving no room to assume that all women are powerless, all males are powerful, or that gender always makes a difference. This is how; this feminist linguistics has focused on the social forces too. Nevertheless, it is suggested that the linguistics feminism of language perception to be kept at bay. It is so, because the sexism becomes difficult to analyse or challenge as they are more locally oriented and content specific. As a result the second wave feminism needs to be merged with the third wave in order to address both the local and global issues (Mills 2008). Language is not all about what we speak, it is about the writing too. By the verge of the second wave, the western society already produced some specific writing skills, which are inclined to feminism. It was a separate category of the scholarly interest. All the underrepresented women work in the history had to gain specific positions in the categories of history or writings. Various presses started taking effort to make the printings of the numerous works, as it was discover quite lately that the women were constantly writing (Blain 1231). This has been further ignited with the growing interest since 1970 in women writing as ‘powerful’. Since then many publishing houses responded in the women works like the long length of Novels and written Biographies. With this scrutiny, one editor reacted that most of the women work have been neglected from citing in most of the books available. Though now the picture is almost stable in this respect. Thus writing as another medium of communication has proved to be equally important when the expressions in the context are about women and men. This media is more typical as this is a kind of media where the data can be stored for future references. Thus, it is more permanent by character. Lastly, the philosophy remains important as that is the tool of the communication, which generates the thoughts to express in a language where the form may vary from what we speak and what we right, though it can be mirrored as the fountain head of the total concept takes birth in the womb of thought. So, after a handsome amount of conversations it has become quite clear that the Feminism as per the feminist theory is concerned, it is a social issue and includes many thing and aspects of society and the human life as a whole, but intends for the female race. It is not about being superior or inferior, good or bad, right or wrong. It is about being rational and be equal with both the genders. It is movement of social structure, where the politics, economic status of the social lot and the power makes the conglomeritic platform to deliver and establish the orders of the gender equality. And to support this entire process, Language has eventually become a part of Feminism; strong enough to control the chemistry of thought process. Bibliography Blain, Virginia. ; Clements, Patricia. ; Grundy, Isobel. (1990). The feminist companion to literature in English: women writers from the Middle Ages to the present. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990. Cambridge Companion to Feminism in Philosophy. Fricker, M. and Hornsby, J. , (eds. ) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 2000. Gelernter, David. â€Å"Feminism and the English Language. † American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research 4 Nov. 2008 . Humm, Maggie. The dictionary of feminist theory. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1990. Hintikka, M. B. and Hintikka, J. â€Å"How Can Language Be Sexist? † in Discovering Reality. Harding, S. and Hintikka, M. B. (eds. ) Dordrecht: D. Reidel: 1983. Hornsby, J. â€Å"Feminism in Philosophy of Language: Communicative Speech Acts†. in The Mills, Sara. â€Å"Third Wave Feminist Linguistics and the Analysis of Sexism. † School of Cultural Studies, Sheffield Hallam University 4 Nov. 2008 . Nye, A. â€Å"The Voice of the Serpent: French Feminism and Philosophy of Language†. in Women, Knowledge and Reality: Explorations in Feminist Philosophy. Garry, A. and Pearsall, M. (eds. ), NY and London: Routledge: 1996.

Paltas

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs by Bob Poston, cst An Exercise in Personal Exploration: Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs is a valuable assessment tool that is used in many different professions, particularly those in the fields of education and health care. the ideas of needs are addressed in order, as the body resolves the most basic needs for survival before moving on to more complex needs. M ny educational programs in the health care field teach Maslow’s hierarchy in order to address the needs of patients and where they are in their life from a psychological perspective, simply because it helps identify and address the needs of those particular patients. The idea of using a hierarchy pyramid helps us to lay out the stages of need, starting with the base of the pyramid, which looks at physiological needs. As we work our way up the pyramid, the needs start to become more complex, and include safety needs, social needs, esteem needs, and finally, at the very top, we have self-actualization.This article explores the theories of Abraham Maslow in detail, as well as addresses the controversies that have been questioned in his theory. This article will also evaluate the impact of these theories on human behavior and assess each of the components comprised within Maslow’s Hierarchy Pyramid. learning OBJec tives s identify the different levels of Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs s Compare and contrast the differences between being needs and deficit needs s explain the process of selfactualization s examine how Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs impacts patient careBiographical outline Born on April 1, 1908, in Brooklyn, New York, Abraham Maslow was the first of seven children. 1 The son of under-educated Jewish immigrants, Maslow didn’t have many friends as a young s Consider the challenges to Maslow’s theories and formulate a response  © 2009 Association of Surgical Technologists For reprint permission: [email  protected] org A UGUST 2009 | the surgical technologist | 347 food and play, they would in more cases choose the food. The same was true when it came to the monkeys’ choice between water and food.The water would always be chosen as the Selfpriority over food. Self-fulfullment actualization: needs achieving one’s As the observations continued, a full potential, pattern emerged. Maslow could see, on including creative a physiological level, that if the monactivities keys didn’t have food, but had water, Esteem needs: the group was less aggressive than prestige and feeling of accomplishment Psychological those that had the water taken away needs Belongingness and love needs: from them. 1 The same held true with intimate relationships, friends safety needs.If all of the physiologiSafety needs: cal needs were met, then the monkeys’ security, safety Basic behavior became more profound when needs Physiological needs: it came to establishing social roles and food, water, warmth, rest dominance. Maslow later transitioned this idea over to human behavior and was able to establish physiological needs over child, but found his sense of self by reading books. He safety needs, safety needs over belongingness needs, belongbegan his college journey by attending City College of New ingness needs over esteem needs, and esteem needs.The York, and later transferred to Cornell University, before needs, in turn, form the first four components of the pyragoing back to City College of New York. After realizing a mid, and are addressed as deficit needs. Self-actualization, keen interest in psychology, he moved to Wisconsin, where the fifth component, addresses the need of being, which he studied at the University of Wisconsin. Throughout defines one’s own place in the universe. the 1930s, Maslow earned his BA, MA and PhD. Later, When an individual does not have enough of something, he returned to New York, where he not only taught full he or she has a deficit, ultima tely creating what Maslow has time at Brooklyn College, but he also became interested in termed â€Å"deficit needs. †1 When individuals eat and drink, human sexuality. for example, the need for water and food is met, so there Maslow served as chair of the Department of Psy- is no longer a motivating factor to obtain water or food, chology at Brandeis from 1951-61. While there, he met and the deficit need has temporarily been satisfied. Deficit a well-established researcher named Kurt Goldstein, who needs comprise or make up the four lower components of developed the idea of â€Å"self-actualization. † This concept Maslow’s hierarchy pyramid. fascinated Maslow, and it was through this notion that he On the other hand, Maslow also mentions the idea of pursued the idea of humanistic psychology, which he ultiâ€Å"being needs. † Being needs have nothing to do with deficit mately valued more than his own research.Maslow died needs. Being needs are internal, a nd are at the very top of on June 8, 1970. 1 Maslow’s hierarchy pyramid, which ties into self-actualization. 2 An example here might be drawing one’s own conclucreating the hierarchy of needs sions of where and who he or she is spiritually. This internal Abraham Maslow is well known for the creation of the concept is addressed as self-actualization. hierarchy of needs. The way he came up with this idea The following sections of this article will address each was by studying and observing monkeys.During observalevel of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in more detail in an tion, he noticed that they displayed a very unusual pattern effort to see how they apply to individuals, and how they of behavior that addressed priorities based on individual can define who and where an individual is in his or her life. needs. If, for example, the monkeys had a choice between FIGURE 1: MASLOW’S HIERARCHY PYRAMID 348 | the surgical technologist | AUGUST 2009  © 2009 Associat ion of Surgical Technologists For reprint permission: [email  protected] orgPHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS With so many different capabilities, from the regulation of temperature and hormones to the processing of water, food and the elimination of waste, the living body is the most unique machine in the universe. Despite its relative fragility, the human body can live for many years. Every single detail is so integral, from how the body processes oxygen through millions and millions of tissue cells, to the thousands of miles of arteries that carry blood and nutrients to those tissues. With this being said, there is still the need to meet the very basic essentials of ife: the body must take on oxygen, water and food. Before any further growth can take place, this very basic need has to be met. This is what Maslow addresses as a physiological need—the need for the body to work in unison to accomplish the task of basic survival. Physiological needs are influenced generally through the cr avings that we have. If a person is thirsty, he or she finds a drinking fountain. Similarly, if the individual is hungry, he or she will find food. If the body is being deprived of oxygen, it will surely react. If there is a vitamin deficiency, the body has subtle ways of fulfilling that need.One example of how the body regulates itself on a physiological level is by homeostasis. Homeostasis simply means to regulate. A part of the human brain, called the hypothalamus, plays an important role in keeping the body regulated by controlling the body’s thermostat, which is controlled by the release of several hormones called gonadotropins. If a female produces too much estrogen, the hypothalamus releases a hormone called luteinizing hormone that triggers ovulation, therefore acting like a shut-off switch for the amount of estrogen present.If the thyroid gland produces too much thyroxin, the hypothalamus produces a hormone to switch off the flow of the thyroxin. These are Throughout life, the idea of physiological needs remains consistent. The need to maintain adequate physiological balance will always be essential†¦ just a few examples of homeostasis at work, however, there are many circulatory hormones that are needed to maintain normal bodily functions. Another prime example is the release of the â€Å"fight or flight† hormones that are secreted by the adrenal medulla of the adrenal glands.If there is a need for the body to defend itself, these hormones will surge into action to prepare the body for fight or flight. These hormones, although they play an important role, are kept in compliance by regulatory mechanisms within the brain. 3 Throughout life, the idea of physiological needs remains consistent. The need to maintain adequate physiological balance will always be essential, and may kick into action in very different ways at various different times, whether the individuals experiencing it are aware of it or not.For example, how would anyone ever get a good night’s sleep if they had to literally think about their breathing pattern, heart rate or blood pressure on a conscious level? Sure some people may have to get up during the night to use the restroom or grab a glass of water, but remember that this is all part of how the body regulates itself. The notion that physiological needs tie into other, more complex needs of the hierarchy is very relevant. Maslow The basic principles of Maslow’s hierarchy have been observed in primates.  © 2009 Association of Surgical Technologists For reprint permission: [email  protected] rg AUGUST 2009 | the surgical technologist | 349 Again, this need will change depending on where an individual is in his or her life. For a young child, approvalseeking behaviors may become more commonplace. The child may engage in activities to get his or her parents’ attention by exploring or asking lots of questions. In a sense, the child needs to feel an emotional or social co nnection with SAFET Y NEEDS his or her parents. As the child evolves into a teenager, he Much like physiological needs require maintenance throughout life, so does the need to feel secure.This need is or she will more than likely become more socially active in more psychological. With that being said, safety needs may peer groups. Generally, whatever gets reinforced, supported, be different for each individual, depending on where he or or accepted by these peer groups will often determine which type of group the adolescent will affiliate him or herself she is in life. For a child, this need may manifest as the need with. This idea can be noticed at any point throughout an individual’s life. Safety needs may be different for each individual, depending on As youths ature into adulthood, they tend to affiliate with those indiwhere he or she is in life. For a child, this need may manifest as viduals or groups who accept them. A sense or a need to belong, at any the need for a saf e family environment. There has to be security stage, is influenced by several factors. in the home, with warmth and love. Some of these influences, for example, are socio-economic influences: the education level of parents and family, 4 the neighborhood in which the child grows up and the type for a safe family environment.There has to be security in the home, with warmth and love. When a family is dysfunc- of schools where they are educated, as well as the children tional, it makes it difficult for that child to move up to the who attend those schools. Whatever type of behavior is learned and accepted, based on these variables, is likely the next level of social needs because fear is often present. For adults, this need may be economic in nature. If a behavior that will form a particular individual’s character person loses his or her job, for example, fear and anxiety and self-esteem.The level of belonging must be established because of its will have an impact on that perso n’s social life, and may effect on one’s self-esteem. If the level of belonging in the cause him or her to regress. 5 Additionally, adults are not hierarchy model is low, or an individual is viewed negatively immune to the need of safety. In some parts of the world, where there is chaos, people are stuck at this level of need- by peers in that group, he or she may develop social anxiety ing to feel safe. The goal of consistently meeting the need for and may withdraw toward a level of people in which he or safety is to have stability in one’s life.It is the idea of being she fits in socially. If a child grows up in a neighborhood able to walk around the block at night without the worry of where there are street gangs, and attends schools in that being mugged. It is the idea of feeling secure in the work- neighborhood with the families of those street gangs, then place. It is conclusive that fear hinders one’s ability to move the likelihood of the child to adapt and take on that form of character becomes more likely. According to Maslow, the on to the more advanced platforms of Maslow’s pyramid. eason for this behavioral pattern is likely due to the peer groups that the child grew up with. BELONGING NEEDS This is not meant to imply that all children who grow up Advancing up the hierarchy pyramid, the next level reprein this type of neighborhood will join a gang, simply that sents the need to belong on a social level. The social level generally becomes the priority only after the physiological there is a higher likelihood of that outcome. On the other and safety needs have been sufficiently met and maintained. and, if a child is brought up in a more affluent neighborhood, it is likely that the parents will also be more educated. A sense of belonging can be felt when an individual becomes more focused on the desire to build relationships with others. In this scenario, it is more likely that the child will develop This includes th e desire for a romantic partner, to have close and adapt to the peer groups in which education is more of a priority. The influence in a child’s upbringing starts friends, and maybe to get married and have children. 1 elieved that once the physiological needs are met in sufficient detail, people move on to address these more complex needs. Safety and security make up the next platform of the pyramid. 350 | the surgical technologist | AUGUST 2009  © 2009 Association of Surgical Technologists For reprint permission: [email  protected] org with a home and family that secures the previous levels of Maslow’s hierarchy by meeting and maintaining the foundation levels of needs. Relieving any anxiety or fear will help put more emphasis on social development, and with this will come a healthier self-esteem.ESTEEM NEEDS Once the needs of physiology, safety and belonging have been met, the individual will now move on to the needs of their self-esteem. Self-esteem, like all th e prior needs, must also be maintained. This is the highest platform in the category of deficit needs. 1 The process of growth, when addressing one’s self-esteem, builds the bridge to one’s awareness. Self-esteem begins to establish itself in life as early as age two. Maslow’s hierarchy addresses two levels of self-esteem. One of those is a lower level and the other is a higher level.Maslow’s hierarchy is a two-way street. A person can spend a lifetime traveling between the two extremes. The lower form of self-esteem is directly related to an individual’s ego, meaning that there is a strong need to be respected by others. 4 Within this lower form, the individual still remains focused on acceptance by others. This lower form of self-esteem is met when an individual has established a level of status, recognition, fame, reputation and appreciation, just to name a few. These areas in a person’s life take work to maintain.They may also require so me reinforcement or validation of some kind in order for this lower form of self-esteem to be maintained. The higher form of self-esteem that Maslow addresses is that of self-respect. This higher form of self-esteem requires less maintenance because through accomplishment, it becomes a permanent part of who the individual is. We can say that once a person has gained respect for himself or herself, it is much harder to lose that respect or to have it taken away. People on the higher end of selfesteem generally like who they are.The idea of confidence in ability, the mastery of something, or the competence that is established in what these people do, supports this higher form of self-esteem. These forms of self-esteem should not be confused with an individual having high or low self-esteem. Individuals with low self-esteem often have a low opinion of themselves and their self-image. As a result, inferiority complexes are present in the individual. With this idea in mind, Maslow conten ds that the majority of people’s psychological problems are due to low self-esteem.The realism here is that if a person don’t like himself or herself, or who he or she is or what he or she has accomplished, then that person will be more critical of himself or herself. Through that process, negative self talk is born, and can create a barrier to achieving personal success. How does low self-esteem impact these lower and higher forms of selfesteem in general? If an individual has low self-esteem, the lower form of self-esteem affects the individual on a social level. The individual may, for example, constantly attempt to seek or validate feedback and acceptance on a social level from his or her peers.With regard to the higher form of selfesteem, in the individual with low selfesteem may display a lack of respect for himself or herself and the expectations that they place upon themselves would be unrealistic, or perhaps in some cases these expectations would be placed by others rather than being placed by the individuals themselves. It is amazing that all of the prior needs within Maslow’s hierarchy, including physiological, safety, and even belongingness needs are frequently met, especially in modern society and developed countries.Imagine if more people just had a little respect for themselves in the grand scheme of things.  © 2009 Association of Surgical Technologists For reprint permission: [email  protected] org AUGUST 2009 | the surgical technologist | 351 THE CONTROVERSY As we take a look at Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy pyramid, there is some controversy as to how it relates directly to humanistic psychology. Is there enough evidence to support this hierarchy when it comes right down to how people develop emotionally?Maslow set forth with the notion that these stages along Self-actualizers are focused on what matters most in defining the course of development match up with how people experience psychowho they are. Once self-re spect is gained, the individual can take logical growth. The primary contention is that a more proactive approach to bettering themselves, as well as anyone in society can regress back to, being able to remain focused on resolving any dilemmas †¦ or value an alternative aspect of the hierarchy pyramid in a way that is not parallel with Maslow’s model.For example, some cultures may be more fixated on belongto figure out, or it can be the determining factor of how well ing over safety, or esteem over belonging. 5 To answer these he or she is connected with his or her self and abilities. People who are self-actualizers are focused on what challenges, many experts believe that Abraham Maslow’s matters most in defining who they are. Once self-respect is hierarchy doesn’t always follow in sequence with how it gained, the individual can take a more proactive approach was intended.If the notion of self-esteem, for example, is thought to develop in children as early as two years of age, to bettering themselves, as well as being able to remain focused on resolving any dilemmas that may arise regarding then why does Maslow address esteem needs so high up in the deficit stages. Self-actualizers may be more generative in the hierarchy pyramid? Humanistic psychology does challenge some of these notions, even though Maslow was a the sense that the focus is no longer as much about pleasbeliever in humanistic psychology. ng others as it is giving back or sharing this part of who Another oft-challenged aspect of his work is that Maslow they are. 6 In other aspects, it can also appear to be spiritual. himself defined self-actualizers as people of great accomLooking at one’s life as to who he or she is in the universe is a good example. Once a person is able to come to terms plishment, such as former presidents, dignitaries and great discoverers. With that being said, it is very difficult to place with who they are, and they are ultimately satisfi ed with an emphasis on the concept of self-actualization.How sigthat, then they have truly reached the point of being able nificant is the concept of the self-actualizer? The only way to self-actualize. With this level of intuition comes a sense of peace, which that to answer that question is to say that all people are at in turn serves as a motivator to focus on more advanced different stages of development, and all of them are selftasks in life, such as supporting the moral and ethical stan- actualizers in some form. SELF-ACTUALIzATION Self-actualization is defined by Maslow as the single component of being within the hierarchy model.Being, in this sense, means not being a part of the deficit needs as they appear within the lower chain of the hierarchy. 1 This need is independent—there must be some accomplishment of all the other deficit needs, which are best defined as what we appear to be, according to the standards of society. Selfactualization is the internal dialogue t hat everyone establishes at some point in their lives. In order to do that, there must be some establishment or satisfaction of the prior needs. Once all of the previous needs have been met, an individual can direct his or her focus toward a true calling.Usually when a person is hungry, or they don’t feel safe, or they feel unloved, the focal point leans towards resolving those issues, therefore disrupting the focus on self-actualizing. With self-actualization, being able to pinpoint how one truly feels about something is often a little more challenging dards in life. There is a more in-depth focus on bettering oneself and expanding one’s knowledge and talents. The real definition to self-actualizing is getting to know oneself, while being okay and unconditionally accepting of whatever it is that he or she discovers.The question every individual must face is, do you like and accept who you are? Once that question is answered, then self-respect is gained. Once an indivi dual establishes that respect for his or herself, no one can take that away. In this context, Abraham Maslow is justified in establishing self-actualization in a category by itself that quantifies the need of being separately from the need of deficit. 352 | the surgical technologist | AUGUST 2009  © 2009 Association of Surgical Technologists For reprint permission: [email  protected] org verview When looking at Maslow’s hierarchy pyramid, an important concept to remember is that anyone at anytime can regress back to any point within the hierarchy structure that Maslow addresses. How does this impact human behavior? Looking back at the very basics of physiological needs for example, people need to feel good. It does not matter if a person is employed as a janitor or a top-notch cardiac surgeon, if he or she is diagnosed with a disease that impacts them physically, he or she is likely to regress back towards satisfying any physiological needs that may come about.The affecte d individual’s attitude towards the prognosis of this disease will likely contribute towards a shift in his or her priorities. Emotionally, the feelings of love and belonging may be impacted in the sense that they may want to ensure that their loved ones are safe when they pass. With regard to esteem, for some, there may be a great sense of loss, while others may come to terms with the fact. With that being said, there are circumstances that affect each individual with regard to where he or she stands in the hierarchy pyramid. Is everyone a self-actualizer? Yes. For each individual, this experience is different.It is experienced at different depths depending on individual life experiences. The more in touch one is with one’s inner self, the better he or she can control, and often master, one’s self-talk. It is also important to remember that all individuals are constantly impacted by the forces of life, some of which are far beyond personal control. When the opp ortunity arises to experience this hierarchy, and the needs of deficit are fully met, it allows the individual to make a closer connection with the concept of self-actualization. Also, when these deficit needs are met, self-actualization, in a sense, is likely to become even more enhanced.The bottom line is that everyone is effected emotionally at every level of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. If early life experiences as a child are positive, and needs are being met, that individual will excel in the area of self-confidence and self-esteem at much faster rate. It helps to establish a strong foundation for life. Later, the individual is able to establish a much stronger set of coping mechanisms when one of the deficit needs isn’t being met. Additionally, when adverse circumstances confront the individual, he or she is often better-equipped with the ability to problem solve and confront the challenge confidently.Conversely, if early life experiences as a child are negative , and needs are not met, that individual’s foundation isn’t as secure, and he or she is not as likely to excel in selfconfidence and self-esteem, rather, he or she is likely to get trapped a state of constantly seeking approval from peers. He or she may develop a fear of making mistakes. The majority falls somewhere in between what is positive in life and what is negative. Ultimately, individuals who develop a strong, well-established foundation are likely to be emotionally strong and can exercise a stronger sense of self control.Those whose foundation is shaky and not very stable will focus more on protecting it, therefore having less confidence in that foundation. ABOUT THE AUTHOR Robert A Poston, cst has been a surgical technologist since 1993. He began his work in education with Concorde Career College in North Hollywood, California in 1997. He has been a guest speaker with the California State Assembly of Surgical Technologists in 2001 and 2003. Robert Poston is c urrently the Program Chair for Surgical Technology at Everest College in Thornton, Colorado. He has also served as an item writer for the National Certification Exam for Surgical Technology.RefeRences 1. Boeree, George C. â€Å"Abraham Maslow, 1908-1970. † Personality Theories. 2006. Available at: http://webspace. ship. edu/cgboer/maslow. html. Accessed 4/9/2009. 2. BambooWeb Dictionary. â€Å"Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. † 2009. Available at: http://www. bambooweb. com/articles/m/a/Maslow’s_hierarchy_of_needs. html. Accessed: 4/9/2009. 3. Applegate, Edith. The Anatomy and Physiology Learning System. 2000. p 214-215. 4. Drinnien, Beverly; Irwin, Donald; Simons, Janet. Psychology—The Search for Understanding. West Publishing Company. New York. 1987. Available at: http://honolulu. awaii. edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/ teachtip/maslow. htm. Accessed: 4/9/2009. 5. NetMBA Business Knowledge Center. â€Å"Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. † 2007. Available at: http://www. netmba. com/mgmt/ob/motivation/maslow/. Accessed: 4/9/2009. 6. Van Wagner, Kendra. â€Å"Self-Actualization and the Hierarchy of Needs. † 2009. Available at: http://psychology. about. com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/ hierarchyneeds_2. htm. Accessed: 4/9/2009.  © 2009 Association of Surgical Technologists For reprint permission: [email  protected] org AUGUST 2009 | the surgical technologist | 353